Carbon Accounting for Cities and Districts

As urban populations grow to about two-thirds of the global population by mid-century, many challenges and opportunities lie ahead. Vulnerable to such impacts of climate as rising sea levels and extreme weather events, cities also have the resources and influence to take effective actions against such phenomena.

» Carbon Accounting Framework for Cities and Districts

Introduction

The GPC offers a standardized framework for cities to measure and report GHG emissions consistently and transparently. Its main objectives are to:

Support Climate Action Planning – Deliver a full methodological suite for cities to develop greenhouse gas inventories essential for effective climate strategies.

Establish Baselines and Monitor Progress – Provide for emission reduction targets and tracking progress over time to all local cities.

Ensure Consistency and Transparency – Promote standard reporting to compare cities’ performance and comply with international GHG accounting principles.

Facilitate Data Aggregation – City inventories should be aggregated at subnational and national levels in order to improve GHG inventory quality.

Promote the Role of Cities in Mitigation – Cities need to be able to report their part in the global effort against climate change through standardized measurement and reporting.

Who Should Use the GPC

In general, the GPC was meant for cities but can also be adapted for areas smaller such as towns, wards, or provinces. Such GPC guidelines may be used by regional or national policymakers to consolidate emissions from several cities to improve the state’s (or the country’s) GHG inventories while also informing wider policy on mitigation activities.

Using the GPC

The GPC requires cities to measure and disclose GHG emissions using two approaches:

Geographically Defined Emissions – It focuses on emissions confined to the geographical area of the city, and thereby does aggregate at regional or national level without double counting.

City-Induced Emissions – It refers to emissions, generally associated with city functions but occurring outside the boundary as a result of city action.

It also includes guidance by the different sectors such as stationary energy, transportation, waste, industrial processes, and agriculture. The GPC also consists of calculation methodologies, data options, and reporting templates by which cities can prepare standardized inventories.

Relationship to Other Protocols

The GPC is further building on and will supersede preliminary standards, such as the 2006 IPCC Guidelines and the Global Covenant of Mayors’ Common Reporting Framework. This is intended to ensure integration into wider climate action framework conditions as well consistent practice between international applications.

Development of the GPC

The GPC has been developed collaboratively by the World Resources Institute (WRI), C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group, and ICLEI-Local Governments for Sustainability and was extensively pilot-tested and publicly consulted. Update includes public feedback and the latest alignment with decadal IPCC guidelines to keep the standard up-to-date and precise.

Local Government Operations

Cities might also carry out a Local Government Operation (LGO) inventory to determine emissions from their own operations. While the GPC does not require an LGO inventory, the collection of data can be further used for identifying reduction opportunities within municipal activities and complement the city-wide inventory.

Accounting and Reporting Principles

The GPC emphasizes principles to ensure that GHG inventories are:

Relevant – Accurately reflect emissions taken from city activities and consumption patterns within their scope.

Complete – Include all emissions within the inventory boundary and justify all exclusions.

Consistent – Use comparable methodologies for meaningful time series comparisons.

Transparent – Document all data sources, emission factors, and methodologies for verification.

Accurate – Establish credibility in information reported by precise calculations.

Notation Keys

To manage data gaps while maintaining transparency, the GPC uses notation keys:

• IE (Included Elsewhere): Emissions estimated in another category.
• NE (Not Estimated): Emissions occur but haven’t been estimated.
• NO (Not Occurring): Activity or process doesn’t occur within the city.
• C (Confidential): Emissions not reported to protect confidential information.

Setting the Inventory Boundary

Geographic Boundary – Defined as co-terminus with administrative limits or jurisdictional boundaries. 

Time Frames – This would typically be the calendar for uniform comparison. 

Greenhouse Gases – CO2, CH4,N2O, HFCs, PFCs, SF6, NF3. 

GHG Emission Sources – Sources classified by sector, such as energy, transportation, waste, industrial processes, and agriculture. 

Emission Scopes:

Scope 1 – Direct emissions in the geographical boundary of a city.

Scope 2 – Indirect emissions resulting from energy consumed in the city but supplied through the grid.

Scope 3 – Other indirect emissions beyond the geographical boundary of a city, resulting from city activities

» Carbon Accounting Methods for Cities and Districts

Overview of Calculating GHG Emissions

Calculation Methodology

The cities have been encouraged to determine their levels of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions using methodologies that are in line with their informational requirements and inventory targets. One of the main reasons for the GPC is to ensure that all efforts are reliable and comparable through the provision of similar methodologies. Thus, the main three ways include the following:

Top-down Approach: The national or regional data is first used before scaling down these data to the city level. This method is used in cases where the city specific data is lacking but can cause uncertainties associated with the assumptions of scaling.

Bottom-up Approach: This strategy derives data of cities directly from the typical sources of these cities. It assures more accurate estimates and the need of more collection of data.

Hybrid Approach: It is a strategy that looks at the top-to-bottom and bottom-to-top approaches in order to work with the most important data available.

Activity Data and Emission Factors

Activity Data Collection: This is when information on emission-generating activities such as how many liters of fuel were consumed, how many kilometers were done by a car, or how many tones of waste were produced is recorded. The local good data should be given special emphasis where available and taken from the most authoritative national GHG inventories, ministries, institutes of higher education and research, and experts in various fields.

Sourcing Activity Data: Always opt and use local/national data rather than international data for more credibility and relevance of the modeled community. In the absence of such local data, default data or activity data from other cities or regions in the same country can also be utilized after adjusting it to suit the locality concerned.

Emission Factors: These values are characterizing GHG emissions by a single unit of a process/activity, for instance, the generation of 1kWh of electric energy is associated with xxxx kg of carbon emissions. Cities can adopt their own in order to enhance accuracy; though, if it is impossible, default factors in the GPC may be applicable.

Conversion to CO₂ Equivalent: It is imperative that gasses considered to affect the climate are presented in simple tonnes with respect to each gas and converted to CO2 equivalents (CO2e) through the use of Appropriate Global Warming potentials based on the most recent IPCC reports so as to assist in comparison.

Data Quality and Verification

Managing Data Quality and Uncertainty: It includes executing control and quality assurance measures during all the stages of data collection and compilation activities. Verify the data sources, verify the computations and provide a log of all the assumptions and steps taken. There should be a process of regular revision and modification of data with time as new data is collected or discovered.

Verification: Even though it is not compulsory, Verification (that is either via internal or external means) strengthens the trustworthiness of the GHG inventory. That is, it is checking the sufficiency and reliability of data, as well as compliance with GPC principles.

Stationary Energy

Categorizing Emissions by Scope

Scope 1: Any emissions that result from fuels being burned inside the city limits (e.g., burning of gas for heating purposes in residential and official buildings, gas used in boilers in factories).

Scope 2: Emissions that are associated directly with electricity usage in the city from electricity produced outside the city.

Scope 3: Emissions that are produced outside of a given city as a result of activities and the city itself (e.g., the making and movement of fuel which is used in the city).

Energy Source Sub-Sectors

• Residential Buildings
• Commercial and Institutional Facilities
• Manufacturing Industries
• Energy Industries
• Agriculture, Forestry, and Fishing Activities

Calculating Emissions

Stationary Fuel Combustion: To figure out how much munition is released, multiply g fuel consumed buy the emission coef daughter the fuel type and content (such as coal , oil , natural gas, and biomass andoil gas storage). Don’t forget about burning features as for example carbon proportion power conversion efficiency.

Fugitive Emissions: Include all uncontrolled greenhouse gas discharges related to recovery and conversion of fuels, alsdo storing and transportation. Employ relevant emission rates in respect of the fuel in question and corresponding supply stages.

Grid-Supplied Energy Consumption: Estimate all the quantities of emissions emitted of use in the amount of electricity, hot water, vapor or chilling one use that is what the emission factor of the grid is.

Transmission and Distribution Losses: Assess emissions, especially those produced due to the loss of energy during transport of energy as a consequence of inefficient grids that result in the loss of energy. Certain variables that impact losses are the length of the transmission lines, efficiency of grids and composition of the energy.

Data Collection and Management

Data Sources: Utility providers, local authorities and energy assessments. Energy data collection should be done for each subsection and fuel and sub-fuel type.

Data Management Practices: 

Updating Emission Factors – It is necessary that updating is done periodically given technological advancements and changes in the sources of energy.

Tracking Energy Consumption – Trends should be expected over time as efficiency processes and energy conservation measurements are applied.

Documentation – This includes the Transparent and Future Relevant Assumptions and Methods within the Inventory.

Transportation

Categorizing Emissions by Scope

Scope 1: Emissions are physically occurring within the city limits from transportation systems.

Scope 2:Indicates emissions associated with the supply of electricity to various urban mode of transportation.

Scope 3: Indicates emissions occurring outside the boundaries of the respective city, but due to activities related to this city e.g., cross-boundary transport.

Transport Modes

On-Road Transportation – This type of transport includes vehicles such as cars, bicycles, motorbikes, utility vehicles and passenger buses.

Railways – Metro rails, overground trains, tourist and cargo trains.

Waterborne Navigation – This encompasses but is not exhaustive of, transport by boats – specific in passenger and other boats such a ferries – as in water transport – business purposes, in addition to commercial shipping.

Aviation – Operating aircraft in cities.

Off-Road Transportation – Examples of these include: loaders, end shovels and inch cultivators.

Calculating Emissions

• On-Road Transportation:
• Fuel-Based Approach: Total fuel consumed × emission factor for each fuel type.
• Vehicle-Kilometers Traveled (VKT) Approach: Total distance traveled × emission factor per vehicle type.
• Hybrid Approach: Combines fuel consumption and VKT data for refined estimates.
• Railways:
• Diesel Trains: Fuel consumption × emission factor.
• Electric Trains: Electricity consumption × grid emission factor.
• Mixed Operations: Calculate emissions separately for diesel and electric power sources.
• Waterborne Navigation:
• Fuel-Based Approach: Marine fuel consumption × emission factor.
• Activity-Based Approach: Vessel activity data × emission factors specific to vessel type and fuel used.
• Aviation:
• Fuel-Based Approach: Aviation fuel consumed × emission factor.
• Flight Activity Approach: Aircraft movements × emission factors for aircraft types.
• Off-Road Transportation:
• Fuel-Based Approach: Fuel consumed by equipment × emission factor.
• Activity-Based Approach: Equipment operational data × emission factors.

Data Collection and Management

• Data Sources: Transportation surveys, fuel sales data, vehicle registration records, traffic monitoring systems.
• Data Management Practices:
• Tracking Fuel Consumption: By fuel type and transport mode.
• Monitoring Vehicle Activity: Collect VKT and traffic volumes regularly.
• Documentation: Keep detailed records of methodologies and assumptions.

Waste

Categorizing Emissions by Scope

Scope 1 addresses direct emissions from waste and wastewater treatment facilities that are entities of the city. 

Scope 2 entails indirect emissions associated with energy being supplied through the grid consumed by these facilities. 

Scope 3 can be defined as all the indirect emissions generated due to all waste management activities outside the city owing to the city waste.

Solid Waste Types

• Municipal Solid Waste (MSW)
• Industrial Waste
• Hazardous Waste
• Construction and Demolition Waste

Calculating Emissions

Solid Waste Disposal:

Landfilling: Methane emissions from anaerobic decay are calculated based on amount, composition of waste, management practice, and methane oxidation factors.

Composting: Methane and nitrous oxide emissions according to waste composted and process efficiency.

Anaerobic Digestion: Methane emissions with regard to recovery and utilization of the energy value of methane.

Incineration: CO₂ emissions from combustion, with waste amount and composition as basis.

Biological Treatment: Consider emissions that accrue from composting and anaerobic digestion, including possible methane recovery.

Incineration and Open Burning: Number of emissions as a function of the amount of waste burned and combustion efficiency, without excluding pollutants classified other than as GHGs.

Wastewater Treatment and Discharge

Methane Emissions: From anaerobic decomposition in processes of treatment; calculates the amount with respect to organic matter in the content and methane correction factors.

Nitrous Oxide Emissions: From nitrifying and denitrifying processes; calculated nitrogen based on content and treatment type.

Data Collection and Management

Data Sources: Waste management agencies, treatment facility operators, environmental reports from monitoring agencies.

Data Management Practices:

Tracking Waste Generation and Disposal: Monitor by waste type for management assessment.

Monitoring Facility Operations: Collect and track data on energy consumption, efficiency, and emissions over time.

Documentation: Maintain detailed records for transparency and future updates.

Industrial Processes and Product Use (IPPU)

Categorizing Emissions by Scope

Scope 1: Direct emissions from the use of processes and products within the industrial city.

Scope 2: The indirect emissions generated from the energy supplied by the grid, which is used in such processes.

Scope 3: The indirect emissions outside the city that are attributed to the industrial activities within it, as for instance, the production of raw materials.

Industrial Processes

• Chemical Production: Emissions from ammonia, nitric acid production.
• Metal Production: Emissions from steel, aluminum manufacturing.
• Mineral Processing: Emissions from cement, lime production.
• Product Use: Emissions from refrigerants, foams, aerosols containing GHGs.

Calculating Emissions

• Process-Specific Methods:
• Cement Production: Amount of clinker produced × emission factors based on raw materials and process efficiency.
• Lime Production: Similar to cement, considering lime produced and material composition.
• Ammonia Production: Based on ammonia produced and process efficiency.
• Steel Production: Amount of steel produced × emission factors for production process.
• Product Use Emissions:
• Refrigerants: Type and amount used × leakage rates and equipment lifetime.
• Foams and Aerosols: Product amount × GHG release rates during use and disposal.

Data Collection and Management

Data Sources: Industrialists, manufacturers and environmental reports.

Data Management Practices:

Tracking Industrial Production: Monitor by sector and process for trend analysis and impact assessment.

Monitoring Product Use: GHG-containing products now in use their disposal will be surveyed on a more regular basis.

Documentation: Keep all calculations and assumptions well documented.

Agriculture, Forestry, and Other Land Use (AFOLU)

Categorizing Emissions by Scope

Scope 1 encompasses direct emission sources from any and all AFOLU activities within the boundaries of the city. 

Scope 2 involves indirect emissions resulting from the energy drawn from the grid for AFOLU activities. 

Scope 3 refers to indirect AFOLU-related emissions outside the city (e.g. imported agricultural products).

AFOLU Activities

Livestock Management: Methane from animal fermentation, waste management; nitrous oxide from fertilizer applications.

Land Use Changes: Deforestation, reforestation, and afforestation emissions in CO2 and any associated changes in carbon stocks.

Aggregate Sources and Non-CO2 Emissions from Land: Methane emissions from rice cultivation, fertilizer application, and biomass burning.

Calculating Emissions

• Livestock Emissions:
• Enteric Fermentation: Number of animals × species-specific emission factors.
• Manure Management: Amount of manure × emission factors based on management system.
• Land Use and Land-Use Change:
• Deforestation: Area cleared × carbon content of biomass and fate of biomass.
• Afforestation/Reforestation: Carbon sequestration modeling based on tree species and growth rates. Soil Carbon Changes: Calculated on land use type, soil type, and management practices.
• Reforestation: Absorption of carbon dioxide according to species of tree and its growth. Soil Carbon Changes: Calculated by land use, soil type, management.
• Aggregate Sources:
• Rice Cultivation: Area cultivated × emission factors considering water management.
• Fertilizer Application: Amount applied × emission factors for soil type and climate.

Data Collection and Management

• Data Sources: Agricultural surveys, land use maps, environmental reports.
• Data Management Practices:
• Tracking Land Use Changes: Monitor by type and area for trends and impact assessment.
• Monitoring Agricultural Practices: Regular data collection on livestock, fertilizer use, crop cultivation.
• Documentation: Detailed records of assumptions and methodologies for transparency.

» Carbon Accounting Standards for Cities and Districts

Managing Inventory Quality

It is highly essential to maintain the quality of a city’s greenhouse gas (GHG) inventory over time to increase ensure its reliability and credibility. The Global Protocol for Community Scale Greenhouse Gas Emission Inventories (GPC) provides instructions on how to develop a sound management plan for the inventory process. Such plans would typically cover:

Methodology Selection

Cities need to select and as far as possible apply appropriate methods to their inventory boundaries, data availability, and reporting requirements. Such methodologies will have to be consistent with GPC guidance and regularly reviewed and updated as new data and research emerge. A common method will ensure that emissions data will be reliable and comparable over time.

Data Collection and Storage

Implementing effective procedures for collecting, storing, and managing data is essential. Cities should:

Establish Data Management Systems: Initiate databases that will segment incoming inventory data into manageable and easy-to-access sections.

Document Data Sources: Produce a comprehensive guide of data sources.

Regularly Update and Validate Data: Conduct periodic reviews to ensure data is valid and current.

Reliable data collection and storage practices enhance the accuracy of the inventory and facilitate future updates.

Documentation and Reporting

Comprehensive documentation of assumptions, methods, and data sources used in the inventory is essential for transparency and verifiability.

GPC provides templates and guidelines to cities so that they can report their inventory results clearly and consistently. Correct documentation ensures:

Transparency: Stakeholders can understand how the inventory was compiled.

Facilitates Verification: Outside parties can assess how accurate and credible the data is.

Quality Assurance and Control

Quality assurance and control procedures should be implemented throughout the inventory process to ensure data accuracy and completeness. This includes:

Cross-checking calculations: Mathematics calculations and formulas to be verified.

Validating data sources: Data inputs could check the reliability of the sources.

Conducting reviewing regularly: Review the full inventory process from time to time for better improvements.

Maintaining high-quality standards improves the credibility of GHG inventories and supports informed decision-making.

» Carbon Accounting Reductions and Targets for Cities and Districts

Reductions

Cities apply their greenhouse gas attempts (GHG inventories) in a developing basis to set mitigation goals and follow progress as it occurs over time. The Global Protocol for Community Scale Greenhouse Gas Emission Inventories (GPC) provides guidance to ensure that the goals, which cities are encouraged to develop applying ambitious targets in line with international climate objectives such as the Paris Agreement, match that of the inventory boundaries for consistent tracking across space and time.

Setting SMART Mitigation Goals

Mitigation goals should be:

• Specific: Clearly defined and precise.
• Measurable: Quantifiable to track progress.
• Achievable: Realistic given the city’s resources.
• Relevant: Aligned with broader climate objectives.
• Time-bound: Having a clear timeline for achievement.

GPC urges city authorities to set short-term as well as long-term goals. Such short-term goals are meant to act as interim milestones to long-term targets and ought to be drawn from the most recent GHG inventory data as they pertain to the capacity of a city to adopt mitigation measures.

Aligning Goals with Inventory Boundaries

The mitigation goal boundary should agree with the GHG inventory boundary for measured progress tracking towards the goal. Clear, transparent explanations should be provided by the cities if the boundaries differ. Aligning the goals with the inventory boundary will:

Help clarify the city’s climate commitments for all concerned stakeholders.

Enable the integration of the city with other regional or national level goals on climate.

Promote a more transparent and accountable climate action planning process.

Tracking Emissions Over Time

Monitoring emissions over time is essential for evaluating the effectiveness of mitigation efforts. The GPC advises cities to:

Systematic and Constant Emissions Monitoring: Consistently use standardized methods for emissions measurement to maintain comparability over time.

• Recalculate emissions when significant changes occur, such as:

Emission Factor Updates: The new scientific data or technological change is updated by recalculating previously assessed historical emissions based on these new factors.

Change in inventory boundaries: changes for comparability should be done on prior emissions if there are changes in geographic or sectoral boundaries.

Increased Quality of Data: Improve past emissions when better data become available to increase accuracy.

Regular recalculations keep the inventory accurate and up-to-date. Cities should document all recalculations and provide clear explanations for any changes to maintain transparency.

Setting Targets

Reporting Updated Goals and Targets

Cities should periodically update their mitigation goals and targets to reflect:

• Changes in their GHG inventories.
• Developments in broader climate policies.
• Progress towards existing goals.

The GPC provides guidance on transparent reporting practices to keep stakeholders informed about:

• The city’s progress in reducing emissions.
• Any adjustments to the climate action plan.

» Carbon Accounting Certification for Cities and Districts

Verification of Emissions

​Checking greenhouse gas (GHG) inventory of a particular city makes it more robust and trustworthy but this is not a requirement under the He Protocol nor under the Global Protocol for Community-Scale Greenhouse Gas Emission Inventories (GPC). The GPC explains the types of verification:

Self-Verification

By the city’s workers themselves, or an assigned verification group.

Finding errors or inconsistencies in the inventory.

Shows some peculiarities in the treatment of the sources and the methods of their determination.

Strengthens organizational capabilities for GHG inventorying and enhances the accuracy of the inventory.

Third-Party Verification

Performed by a third-party expert alone, including but not limited to an audit or a consultancy.

Gives a better background regarding the quantity and the truth of stock.

Enhances the reliability between those from outside namely citizens, enterprises and public authorities.

Underlines a certain degree of openness and the willingness to take responsibility.

Parameters of Verification

The GPC outlines specific parameters to guide the verification process:

The Scope of Verification: It is best to include the full inventory that is all sectors, sources and gases that are bound to be reported. As cities may be constrained in resources, they should not disregard the spatial scale used to consider the main sectors of the economy or important data sources and emission generating activities of interest in cities.

Verification Methodologies: Should conform to GPC specifications with/or include a proportional review of the data sources, emissions factors and calculations. They gauge the adequacy of the quality assurance and quality control measures that the city has instituted.

Level of Assurance: This is based on the level of detail of the review. Municipalities are to find a level that provides enough analytical benefits and does not exceed the resources and needs.

Verification Process

The verification process involves several key steps:

Planning

Encounter objectives that can be articulated clearly, scope and methodologies.

Choose the audit firm (either internal or external) that is suitable for audit.

Determine the extent of the assurance.

Put the verification activities on the extended schedule.

Data Collection and Review

All the data suitable for the inventory, including the data on activity, emission factors and the methods used for the calculations are bounds to be procured for review. This can involve cross-referencing on the secondary sources as well.

The next approach includes calculation checking. Support can be requested from third party, this may be offered when operation managers need to verify the results of the data gathered.

Appraise if the physical and technical systems and databases in use effectively manage the existing data.

Assessment

Check whether the quality of the inventory has been maintained. 

See that the methods adopted are equally suitable and confirm the credibility of sources of information.

Point out any possible defects in the inventory, regardless of the progress made.

Reporting

A credible verification report must be made for the records of verification performed.

The findings of the verifier, impact reduction strategies, and finalization procedures will be noted.

The reasons for any determination that was reached shall be made explicitly.

Follow-Up

Fulfill the highest quantity in regard to the requirements reviewed during the verification.

Put in action the changes which will assist in handling these issues included correcting calculations and the methodology review itself.

Including updating data organization principles.

Benefits of Verification

Enhances Credibility: Establishes confidence of the interested parties through the ability to perform the functions in an accurate and open manner.

Supports Decision-Making: Assures the assurance of the unbiasedness of the information in the process of the planning and policy development.

Identifies Improvements: It will also help in identifying the problem of the existing data-collection and inventory processes and ways of improving the processes.

Aligns with Best Practices: Reframes the climate action aspirations of the city and sculptured the city as a forward looking one. This is because of the usage of correct processes.

» Carbon Accounting Reporting for Cities and Disctricts

Reporting Emissions

Cities are required to report emissions by scope, gas, sector, and subsector, following:
Scopes Framework – Acknowledges all forms of emissions, separating them into direct and indirect to avoid counting the same emissions twice.

City-Induced Framework – It aggregates emissions from city activities and exclusion measures anything outside the scope of the Scope 1, 2 and significant portion of Scope 3 emissions.

Reporting Levels
BASIC: Captures most requirements related to the stationary energy and transportation, while also covering the waste Scope 1 and Scope 3 emissions. Targets every city irrespective of the development stage.
BASIC+: Adds up more factors such as industrial processes (IPPU- ANNEX I), agriculture (AFOLU- ANNEX II) and transborder transportation. If these factors contribute considerably, then it is better to use this one.

The GPC Reporting Framework
The GPC offers a standard template for reporting plus comprehensive instructions to guarantee uniformity and openness. Cities may modify this template according to their requirements and present the necessary emissions in multiple formats for different stakeholders.

Regular Updates
Taking into account GHG inventories, it is suggested to always update them; out of this timeframe, they should be updated as the need arises to factor in the latest data and measure fulfillment of the mitigation goals that have been set. Constant updating of the data plays an important role in preserving the inventory’s relevance by assisting in practical climate action thanks to accurate decisions.

Acknowledgment of Valuable Contribution

This website’s summary was deeply enriched by the insights originally presented on ghgprotocol.org. Although the content has been rephrased and adapted to fit our unique style, the foundational ideas and thorough analysis provided by the Greenhouse Gas Protocol were indispensable in shaping our understanding of the topic. We extend our heartfelt gratitude to Greenhouse Gas Protocol for sharing such detailed and inspiring information. Without their contribution, this summary would not have been possible, and we remain profoundly appreciative of their commitment to spreading knowledge and fostering informed discussion.

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